Alkaline Manganese Cell Batteries
Alkaline manganese cell batteries derive their energy from the chemical reaction between zinc metal and manganese dioxide. Zinc acts as the anode while manganese dioxide is the cathode.
The electrolyte in these batteries is either potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide. They offer a consistent capacity over a wide range of current drains and are suitable for applications with constant demand such as calculators, toys and portable electronics.
The Electrochemical Process
The electrochemical process involves the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy. It is a common method of powering many devices, from flashlights to calculators. It also is used to plate objects with decorative metals like gold or chromium.
Traditionally, electrochemical cells and batteries have relied on an acidic electrolyte to allow chemical reactions to take place. This changed in 1899 when Waldemar Jungner developed the first alkaline cell.
This type of battery uses an alkaline electrolyte made from potassium hydroxide to enable the electrons to transfer across the cell. This process is also known as redox chemistry and is a key part of the battery technology.
A typical alkaline manganese cell consists of three main components: the anode, the cathode and the electrolyte. Each of these three components plays an important role in the overall structure of the cell.
* Anode: The anode of an alkaline battery is made from manganese dioxide (MnO2) powder and is coated with a thin layer of zinc powder. This coating prevents water from entering the cathode and causing damage to the cell. It also increases the capacity of the anode.
** Cathode: The cathode of an alkaline battery is composed of a finely ground powder of manganese dioxide mixed with coal dust. This mixture is encased in a paper separator and separated from the anode.
*** Electrolyte: The electrolyte of an alkaline battery is made from potassium hydroxide and is also contained within the separator. This helps to ensure that the electrolyte is evenly distributed throughout the cathode and the anode.
The concentration of potassium hydroxide in an alkaline battery is a major factor in determining its performance. This concentration is calculated as the final concentration of KOH in the whole cell after one electron discharge takes place, and it should not be higher than about 50%.
The impact of porosity is also an important consideration. Increasing the porosity of the anode from about 67% to about 74% can result in a substantial increase in performance, but any further increase beyond this is alkaline manganese cell usually outweighed by any loss of efficiency that might be experienced.
The Anode
The anode of an alkaline manganese cell is zinc powder surrounded by a layer of electrolytic manganese dioxide. This ‘inside out’ version of the traditional zinc-carbon design eliminates anodic passivation of the zinc anode, and allows for heavy drain discharge. Zinc is a strong conductor, and this design prevents zinc from becoming degraded by the potassium hydroxide electrolyte.
The cell itself is a cylindrical metal drum, and the positive terminal of the battery protrudes from the top of this drum. The anode and cathode materials are mixed in a paper separator within the hollow drum.
This type of cell is often used in toys, flashlights and other electronic circuit designs that require a small amount of current to be delivered periodically. The cells are available in a range of sizes and are interchangeable with zinc-carbon batteries.
Some of the most commonly used sizes include the AA and AAA cells. These batteries are sized to deliver 700 mA of power, whereas larger C and D cells can deliver up to several amperes.
In a bobbin cell, for example, the cathode is restricted from significantly changing its dimensions during discharge by interference at its outer periphery and its bottom with the internal surfaces of the container 12, and at its inner periphery by interference with the separator 16. The cathode of a coin or button cell is restricted from significantly changing its dimensions by interference at its top and underside with the closure member 22.
The cathodes of rechargeable cells embodying a primary alkaline manganese dioxide-zinc cathode, especially in the presence of an alkaline electrolyte, have a tendency to swell during charge and discharge cycles. This tendency can cause the cell to fail, because it can cause mechanical damage and disintegration of the MnO2 cathode.
This problem can be avoided by limiting the size of the cathode to be greater than the actual area of the zinc anode. In this way, the swelling will be prevented, as well as other potential damage caused by the swell.
The present invention has been made in connection with cells having an alkaline electrolyte and an anode of zinc, but the same principles can be applied to other cell systems containing an anode of hydrogen, iron, cadmium, mercury, lead or bismuth.
The Cathode
The cathode of an alkaline battery is made up of manganese dioxide and carbon powder. This mixture is then dissolved in an electrolyte solution or water to make it more conductor-friendly. Binders may also be added to help form the cathode and increase its strength.
These types of cells were introduced in the 1960s and remain in a strong position in today’s market. They have many advantages over their predecessors, including higher energy density and a high charge capacity.
This is due to a higher purity of the manganese dioxide and its greater conductivity. Additionally, the cell’s dense cathode makes it more effective in storing and delivering energy to its anode and electrolyte.
Another important advantage of an alkaline manganese battery is its low internal resistance. This means that it can store more energy than a similar-sized zinc-carbon battery.
Its capacity is particularly well suited to devices that have a high drain rate or that require large amounts of power. In addition, it has a longer cycle life than a zinc-carbon cell.
The cathode of an alkaline manganese battery has a tendency to expand during discharge and contract during charging. This is because of oxidation-reduction reactions that occur at the cathode.
There are several different materials that can be used as a cathode in an alkaline cell, such as pyrolusite, ramsdellite, hollandite, birnessite, and romanechite. Other materials are available, but these are the most common.
Other materials that are known to work well as cathode materials in alkaline electrolytes include lanthanum chloride and nickel cadmium oxide. These are less expensive than pyrolusite or ramsdellite and they also tend to be more durable.
These compounds are able to withstand high temperatures and can withstand long periods of deep discharge. However, they are susceptible to corrosion and have a tendency to short-circuit when exposed to acidic solutions.
Fortunately, there are batteries that can resist these corrosive environments and prolong the battery’s lifespan. These are called rechargeable alkaline manganese (RAM) batteries.
These batteries contain a positive anode and negative cathode, both of which are connected by a separator containing potassium hydroxide in a solution of water. This electrolyte helps ions and electrons flow between the anode and cathode, creating an electrical circuit. The positive anode is located in the center of the cell, while the negative cathode is found on the outside. This allows for efficient spacing of the components, a key factor in the cell’s capacity and performance.
The Electrolyte
An alkaline manganese cell consists of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte material that facilitates the transfer of electrons. The electrolyte is typically 35-40 percent potassium hydroxide in water, although this depends on the battery’s application.
The anode is made of zinc powder, which is dispersed in a solution of potassium hydroxide, the electrolyte. The cathode is made of manganese dioxide, which forms a layer on the inside of the battery casing. A separator separates the anode and cathode.
A battery containing an alkaline electrolyte contains less space for internal components and has better energy density than a battery with a carbon zinc cell. This is due to the purer manganese dioxide anode material which is denser, which offers improved leakage resistance.
It also offers better low temperature performance than carbon zinc batteries, which tend alkaline manganese cell to decompose and lose their power over time. This enables the battery to function at sub-zero temperatures without freezing.
Rechargeable batteries based on this chemistry are becoming available. These are known as RAM (Rechargeable Alkaline Manganese) cells and offer all of the features and benefits of a standard alkaline battery, with the added benefit that they can be recharged.
These batteries are widely used in household appliances, and they have become one of the most popular primary battery chemistries around the world. They are also used to power some toys and electronic circuit designs, and are often more cost effective than lithium ion batteries.
They are available in a variety of sizes from AAA and AA to C, D and 9 V. The AA size is the most common and has a higher charge capacity, while the C and D size are often used for medium drain applications.
Unlike the older dry battery, an alkaline manganese battery contains a liquid electrolyte that can be filled and refilled. However, this can lead to leaks and short circuits if the battery is left unrecharged for too long.
These batteries are a variant of the Leclanche cell, which was developed in 1899 by Dr Ernst Waldemar Jungner. These are the most common primary batteries in use today and account for 65 percent of the market.